Jump to content

Hijab in Iran

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Compulsory hijab in Iran)

After the 1979 Iranian Revolution, the Hijab became the mandatory dress code for all Iranian women by the order of Ayatollah Khomeini, the supreme leader of the new Islamic Republic.[1] Hijab was seen as a symbol of piety, dignity, and identity for Muslim women.[2]

The Safavid dynasty centralized Iran and declared Shia Islam as the official religion, which led to the widespread adoption of hijab by women in the country. Shia Islam served as a tool for the Safavids to consolidate the diverse ethnic groups under their authority and to differentiate themselves from their Sunni Muslim adversaries.[3] Women continued to wear hijab as a prevalent fashion trend during the Qajar era, with increased inspiration from European fashions and materials. The Pahlavi era (1925-1979) was marked by significant changes in the hijab and women's dress in Iran, reflecting the influence of Westernization, modernization, and political movements. The first Pahlavi era, under Reza Shah (1925-1941), was characterized by the forced unveiling of women, known as Kashf-e hijab, as part of the regime's attempt to secularize and modernize the country. Women who resisted the ban on hijab faced harassment, violence, and imprisonment.[4] The second Pahlavi era, under Mohammad Reza Shah (1941-1979), was more tolerant of women’s choice of clothing, but also encouraged Western styles and fabrics, especially among the urban elite. Women wore a variety of dresses, skirts, pants, suits, and coats, often made of silk, velvet, or brocade. They also wore hijab in different forms, such as scarves, hats, or veils, depending on their personal, religious, or political preferences.[5]

Following the 1979 revolution, hijab became a compulsory dress code for women by the new regime. Iranian women have since been legally required to wear the hijab, with any infringements being punished by monetary fines and imprisonment. These restrictions have sparked several movements by activists and ordinary citizens who challenge the mandatory hijab, seeking more freedom and rights for women. In response, the government has often cracked down on protests with violence, notably during the Mahsa Amini protests.

History[edit]

Muslims conquered Iran in the time of Umar (637 CE) and Iranians converted to Islam and adopted Muslim customs such as hijab. During the Middle Ages, Turkic nomadic tribes from Central Asia arrived, whose women did not wear headscarves.[6][7]

Safavid dynasty[edit]

As part of Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam (from 1501 to 1736) centralization in the 16th century, the headscarf became defined as the standard headdress for many religious women in urban areas all around the Iranian Empire.[8] Exceptions to this were seen only in the villages and among nomadic tribes,[6][7][9][10][11] such as Qashqai. Covering the whole face was rare among the Iranians and was mostly restricted to local Arabs and local Afghans.

However, hijab was not uniform and monolithic in Safavid Iran. Women from different ethnic and religious groups wore different styles and colors of veils and headscarves, reflecting their regional and cultural identities.[12] Some women also wore hats, turbans, and bonnets, influenced by European fashion.

The Safavid court was also a place of diversity and splendor in terms of clothing. The royal women wore elaborate and luxurious garments, made of silk, velvet, brocade, and fur, embroidered with gold and silver, and adorned with jewels and pearls. They also wore different types of head coverings, such as mandils (turban material), qalānsūwas (conical caps), and tāj (crowns).[13]

An example of hijab during the Qajar era, Taj ol-Molouk, a royal consort.

Qajar dynasty[edit]

During Qajar dynasty the hijab was a prevalent fashion choice for women in Iran, as it reflected the cultural, religious, and political identity of the Qajar empire. The hijab was enforced by the Islamic dress code for women, which was introduced by the Safavid dynasty and continued by the Qajars.[14] The hijab was often made of colorful and patterned fabrics, and sometimes adorned with pearls, feathers, or flowers, however, In the later Qajar period, women’s clothing became more elaborate and diverse, reflecting the influence of European styles and fabrics. Women wore long dresses with tight waists and wide skirts, often made of silk, velvet, or brocade. They also wore jackets, vests, and shawls over their dresses, and decorated their outfits with embroidery, lace, ribbons, and jewels.[15][16]

The Qajar dynasty faced many internal and external challenges and pressures, such as the constitutional revolution, the tobacco protest, and the Anglo-Russian agreement. These events affected the lives and roles of women in Iran, who participated in various social and political movements, such as the women’s awakening, the women’s association, and the women’s parliament. Some women also advocated for women’s rights and education, such as Bibi Khanum Astarabadi, Tuba Azmudeh, and Sediqeh Dowlatabadi.[13] during the economic crisis in the late 19th century under the Qajar dynasty, the poorest religious urban women[17] could not afford headscarves,[9][18] therefore Women were protected, secluded in the home or had to wear chador.[17]

Reza Shah's wife Tadj ol-Molouk, and their daughters Shams and Ashraf, 8 January 1936

Pahlavi dynasty[edit]

In the 1920s, a few individual Iranian women started to appear unveiled, despite the cultural pressure to veil. In 1924, the singer Qamar-ol-Moluk Vaziri broke gender segregation and seclusion by performing unveiled in the gender-mixed company at the Grand Hotel in Tehran, and the Royal Palace Theater.[19] Reza Shah, a military officer who supported "Westernized women active outside the home" and opposed the influence of religious clerics, came to power in December 1925.[20] Iranian women's rights activists supported the unveiling, and the feminist Sediqeh Dowlatabadi is believed to have been the first woman in Iran to have appeared in public without the veil in 1928.[21][22] To appear without a veil or even favor it in public debate was very controversial, and women's rights activists who spoke in favor of unveiling sometimes had to be protected by the police.[23] In 1926, the Shah specifically provided police protection for individual women who appeared unveiled but with a scarf or a hat to cover the hair.[24]

In 1928, the Queen of Afghanistan, Soraya Tarzi, appeared unveiled publicly with the Shah during her official visit to Iran. The clergy protested and asked the Shah to tell the foreign queen to cover up, but he refused. His refusal caused rumors that the Shah planned to abolish the veil in Iran. In 1928, Shah's wife, queen (Tadj ol-Molouk) attended the Fatima Masumeh Shrine during her pilgrimage in Qom wearing a veil that did not cover her completely, as well as showing her face, for which a cleric harshly criticized her.[25] As a response, Reza Shah publicly beat the cleric who had criticised the queen the next day.[25]

As a method of the modernization of the country, and following the example of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in Turkey, the shah encouraged women's participation in society.[26] The veiling of women which would have huge symbolic importance in towards this and women's emancipation in general, but the shah introduced the reform gradually so as not to cause unrest.[26]

Female teachers were encouraged to unveil in 1933, and schoolgirls and women students in 1935.[26] The reform not only allowed female teachers and students not to veil, but allowed female students to study alongside men. All these reforms were opposed and criticized by the Shia clergy.[25]

In 1935, the women's committee Kanun-e Banuvan (Ladies Society) was formed with the support of the government.[27] The committee's women's rights activists campaigned for unveiling.[26]

Kashf-e hijab[edit]

Military commanders of the Iranian armed forces, government officials, and their wives commemorating the abolition of the veil in 1936
Main article: Kashf-e hijab

On 8 January 1936,[28] Reza Shah issued a decree banning all veils, known as Kashf-e hijab (Persian: کشف حجاب, lit. 'Unveiling').[29] The official declaration of unveiling was made on 8 January 1936, where the queen and her daughters were given an important role in this event.[26] That day, Reza Shah attended the graduation ceremony of the Tehran Teacher's College with the queen and their two daughters unveiled and dressed in modern clothes.[26] The queen handed out diplomas while the Shah spoke against the historic marginalization of Iranian women, telling the female graduates that the future was now in their hands.[26] This was the first time an Iranian queen had shown herself in public. Afterwards, the Shah published pictures of his unveiled wife and daughters, and the unveiling was enforced throughout Iran.[26] To enforce this decree, the police were ordered to physically remove the veil from any women who wore it publicly.[30] As a result, many pious traditionalist women chose not leave their houses to avoid confrontations,[31][10] and a few conservative women even committed suicide to avoid removing their hijabs due to the decree.[31]

The ban was enforced for five years, until Reza Shah was deposed in 1941. The Iranian women's movement had generally favored unveiling,[32] and many of Iran's leading feminists and women's rights activists organized in the Kanun-e Banuvan to campaign in favor of the Kashf-e hijab, among them Hajar Tarbiat, Khadijeh Afzal Vaziri and Sediqeh Dowlatabadi, Farrokhroo Parsa and Parvin E'tesami.[33]

Religious conservatives reacted with outrage to the reform. According to Iran's current Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, the policy was aimed at "eradicating the tremendous power of faith" in Muslim societies that was enabled by what he termed the "decency of women", as hijab (in his view) protected Muslim women from the "malicious abuse" suffered by women in the West, and the people from preoccupation with sexual desire.[34]

Mohammad Reza Pahlavi[edit]

Kashf-e hijab was relaxed in 1941 under Reza Shah's heir, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi; the wearing of a headscarf or chador was no longer an offence and women were able to dress as they wished.[35] However, hijab was still considered an indicator of backwardness or of membership of the lower class. Wearing of the chador became a significant hindrance to climbing the social ladder.[36] Veiled women were assumed to be from conservative religious families with limited education, while unveiled women were assumed to be from the educated and professional upper or middle class.[35] Professional middle-class women such as teachers and nurses appeared unveiled in their work place, but sometimes veiled when they returned home to their families.[26]

Women who wore the headscarf or chador were often discriminated against, with some public institutions discouraging their use, and some restaurants refusing to admit women who wore them.[30][37]

In the 1970s, the chador was usually a patterned or of a lighter color such as white or beige; black chadors were typically reserved for mourning and only became more acceptable everyday wear starting in the mid-1970s. However, in the period before the Iranian Revolution, the black chador's usage outside of the city of Qom was associated with allegiance to political Islam and was stigmatized by areas of Iranian society.

During this era, traditionalists such as the Fada'iyan-e Islam (Devotees of Islam) demanded mandatory veiling and a ban on unveiled women, but their efforts failed.[33]

Islamic Republic era[edit]

Opposition to the Shah and Westernization[edit]

Leading up to the Islamic Revolution of 1979, the wearing of hijab by educated middle-class women began to become a political symbol—an indication of opposition to the Pahlavi modernization policy and thus of Pahlavi rule.[36] Many middle-class working women started to use it as such.[36]

The hijab became popular among the middle class opposition, as a symbol of revolutionary advocacy for the poor, as protest of the treatment of women as sex objects, to show solidarity with the conservative women who always wore them, and as a nationalist rejection of foreign influence.

Hijab was considered by conservative traditionalists as a sign of virtue, and unveiled women as the opposite. Rather than a sign of backwardness, unveiled women came to be seen as a symbol of Western cultural colonialism; "Westoxication" (Gharbzadegi) or infatuation with western culture, education, art, consumer products etc., "a super-consumer" of products of Imperialism, a propagator of "corrupt Western culture", undermining the traditionalist conception of "morals of society", and as overly dressed up "bourgeois dolls", who had lost their honor.[38]

In spite of hijab and gender segregation, thousands of veiled women participated in religious processions and anti-Shah demonstrations alongside men, which showed hijab protected women from sexual harassment (because conservative men regarded them as more respectable) and enabled access to public spheres.[39]

Islamic Republic[edit]

Main article: Compulsory hijab in Iran
1979 Iranian Women Day's protests against mandatory veiling. Unveiled women protesting against the introduction of mandatory veiling. While many women had worn the veil during the revolution, they had not expected mandatory veiling and did not support it.

After the Islamic Revolution and founding of the Islamic Republic in 1979, mandatory hijab was enshrined as law.[38] [29] This was in spite of statements made during his exile in France, where he denied any intent to control women's dress code. Ayatollah Khomeini announced that women should observe Islamic dress code.[40] He was supported in his by the conservative/traditionalists fraction of the revolutionaries who were hostile to unveiled women, as expressed in two slogans used during this time: "Wear a veil, or we will punch your head" and "Death to the unveiled".[40]

Non-conservative/traditionalist women, who had worn the veil as a symbol of opposition during the revolution, had not expected veiling to become mandatory. Almost immediately after, starting from 8 March 1979 (International Women's Day), thousands of women began protesting against mandatory Hijab.[38][35] The protests lasted six days, until 14 March. The protests resulted in the (temporary) retraction of mandatory veiling,[38] and government assurances that Khomeini's statement was only a recommendation.[29][41]

Khomeini, denied that any non-hijab wearing women were part of the revolution, telling Italian journalist Oriana Fallaci in February 1979:

"the women who contributed to the revolution were and are women who wear modest clothes. ... these coquettish women, who wear makeup and put their necks, hair and bodies on display in the streets, did not fight the Shah. They have done nothing righteous. They do not know how to be useful, neither to society, nor politically or vocationally. And the reason is because they distract and anger people by exposing themselves."[40]

As the consolidation of power by Khomeini and his core supporters continued, left and liberal organizations, parties, figures, were suppressed and eliminated, and mandatory veiling for all women returned.[38] This began with the 'Islamification of offices' in July 1980, when unveiled women were refused entry to government offices and public buildings, and banned from appearing unveiled at their work places under the risk of being fired.[42] On the streets, unveiled women were attacked by revolutionaries.[40]

Modern Law[edit]

Enforcing the compulsion[edit]

There are several parts of the government that have the responsibility and eligibility to make laws and enforce them to people regarding the matter of compulsory hijab. First of all, the morality police or Gasht-e Ershad, which are units of the Iranian security forces that patrol the streets and public places to monitor the compliance of women with the hijab law.[43][44] The judiciary, which is the branch of the government that prosecutes and punishes women who violate the hijab law, with penalties ranging from fines and lashes to imprisonment and Flagellation.[45][43] The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), which is a paramilitary force that cooperates with the judiciary and the morality police to suppress women who protest against the hijab law.[45]

In 2023, the Minister of Islamic Culture and Guidance announced they have a new The Bureau of Chastity Living, it is to parallel work to country's public culture council.[46][47]

Law enforcement command[edit]

Facial recognition cameras, a product of Bosch, were deployed for use.[48][49] In the 2023 law business places that are reported to not force women hijab receive fine up to %10 percent annual gross profit.[50] A uniform was issued for waitresses in entire city of Mashhad.[51]

The fines are withdrawn from the person's bank account by the government.[52]

In a move interpreted as a declaration of war against the people the government made it so doctors can't visit unveiled females.[53]

Municipality in Tehran city in August 2023 hired 400 hijab guards (hijabban) they report and then make arrest.[54] In August 2023, law minor girls who don't wear hijab can't go to school, aren't allowed to be hired in the future, can't get a passport, can't have a mobile phone, can't have a bank account, or internet access.[55]

In August 2023, Iranian MPs have voted to review a controversial hijab law behind closed doors, potentially avoiding public debate. The proposed "Hijab and Chastity Bill" would impose stricter penalties on women not wearing headscarves, prompted by protests over the death of a woman in custody. The decision to use Article 85 of Iran's constitution allows for a three to five-year trial period, pending approval from the powerful Council of Guardians.[56]

Penalties[edit]

[57]
Crime Highest Charge/Punishment Fine
Foreigner without hijab
  • Passport confiscated
  • Denied residence
 Article 23 Islamic criminal code[58]
Not wearing hijab out on the street / Removing own hijab in public (kashf hijab) 1st time 6th degree maximum punishment, second time fifth degree misdemeanor
  • First time 6-24 million toman
  • 2nd time 24 to 50 million toman
public nudity (not wearing full hijab) or semi nude (improper clothes)
  • Arrest
  • Five to ten-year prison, five year imprisonment(second offense)
  • 3rd degree (first offense), 4th degree fine
  • 36 - 55 million toman
  • 50 to 100 million toman on repeated arrest
Not wearing hijab in car and on motor bike 500 thousand toman traffic fine, 3 to 6 month car confiscation after second notice
  • Up to twenty million toman
Collaborating with enemy countries, media, foreign groups against hijab
  • Fourth degree
  • Five year to ten-year jail time
  • 50 to 100 million toman
Insulting hijab online or in real life and or advertising not wearing hijab
  • Fourth degree (First degree on second time)
  • Banned from exiting the country
  • Banned from cyber/internet 6 month to 2 year
  • Contents records deleted
  • 1st time offender 50 to 100 million toman
  • second time more than 280 million toman
Working advertisings without/or against hijab wearing
  • Third and or fourth degree
  • Double the payments received
  • 36 to 55 million toman
  • Two time offenders 72 million to 110 million toman
Anti hijab wearing advertising action by businesses, workplaces and or employee
  • 2nd degree, fine of 2/4/ month of all of profits gained*
  • Banned from leaving the country 6 months- to 2 years
  • 36 to 55 million
  • 55 to 100 million
Celebrities without/ not wearing hijab
  • 2nd degree or /%10 of net worth*
  • 6 months barred from working (5 to 15 year on repeat)
  • 6 months to 2 year banned from using the internet (repeat)
  • every estate/properties confiscated
  • 280 million plus toman
Selling / imported forbidden dresses and clothes
  • Third/and or Fourth degree or 2/4 fold value of product*
  • 50 to 100 million toman
Production / distribution of banned dresses / clothes
  • Third/and or Fourth degree or 2/4 fold value of product*
  • 50 to 100 million toman
Designing of banned dresses / clothes
  • Third/and or Fourth degree, three times income received from work*
  • 6 months to 2 year banned from using the internet
  • Online content wiped
  • 50 to 100 million toman
Deleting/ hiding CCTV footage tape from FARAJA
  • Fourth degree
  • Fired and barred for up to 6 month- 2 years from government services
  • 50 to 100 million toman
Government worker/employees not wearing properly hijab Fired and barred for up to 6 month- 2 years from government services
Insulting / abusing hijabi wearing women
  • 6 month
  • 70 lashes
Insulting Muslims who attempted guide person to hijab Sixth degree 6-24 million toman
Extra insulting Muslims who attempted to guide person to hijab Fifth degree 24-50 million toman

Movements[edit]

Protest, White Wednesday[edit]

In May 2017, My Stealthy Freedom, an Iranian online movement advocating for women's freedom of choice, created the White Wednesday movement, a campaign that invites men and women to wear white veils, scarves, or bracelets to show their opposition to the mandatory forced veiling code.[59] The campaign resulted in Iranian women posting pictures and videos of themselves wearing pieces of white clothing to social media.[59] Masih Alinejad, the Iranian-born journalist and activist based in the UK and the US, who started the protest in 2017,[60] described it in Facebook, "This campaign is addressed to women who willingly wear the veil, but who remain opposed to the idea of imposing it on others. Many veiled women in Iran also find the compulsory imposition of the veil to be an insult. By taking videos of themselves wearing white, these women can also show their disagreement with compulsion."[60][61]

Protest, Vida Movahed[edit]

Main article: Iranian protests against compulsory hijab

On 27 December 2017, a White Wednesday protester, 31-year-old Vida Movahed, also known as "The Girl of Enghelab Street" was arrested. A video of her silently waving her white hijab headscarf on a stick while unveiled for one hour on Enqelab Street in Tehran[62][63] went viral on social media.[63][64][65] On social media, footage of her protest was shared along with the hashtag "#Where_Is_She?" On 28 January 2018, human rights lawyer Nasrin Sotoudeh announced Movahed had been released,[66][67] In the following weeks, multiple people re-enacted Movahed's public display of removing their hijabs and waving them in the air.[63]

On 1 February 2018, the Iranian police released a statement saying that they had arrested 29 people, mostly women, for removing their headscarves.[63][68] One woman, Shima Babaei, was arrested after removing her headdress in front of a court.

On 23 February 2018, Iranian Police released an official statement saying that any women found protesting Iran's compulsory veiling code would be charged with "inciting corruption and prostitution," which carries a maximum sentence of 10 years in prison.[69] considerably harsher than regular sentences of two months imprisonment or up to 74 lashes; or a fine of five hundred to fifty thousand rials for being without hijab.[70]

Following the announcement, multiple women reported being physically abused by police following their arrests,[69] some sentenced to multiple years in prison.[71] In one video, an unveiled woman is tackled by a man in police uniform while standing atop a tall box, waving her white scarf at passers by.[72] On 8 March 2018, another video went viral, this one of three hijab-less Iranian women singing a feminist fight song in honor of International Women's Day and feminist issues in Tehran's subway .[73]

That same day, in response to the peaceful hijab protests, Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, posted a series of tweets ,[74] defending the Islamic state's dress code, praising Islam for keeping women "modest" and in their "defined roles" such as educators and mothers, and chastising Western immodesty.[75] "The features of today's Iranian woman include modesty, chastity, eminence, protecting herself from abuse by men."[76]

Protest, Mahsa Amini[edit]

In 2021 a hard-line "Principalist", Ebrahim Raisi, was elected President of Iran, and enforcement of hijab regulations intensified.[77] September 2022, when new and more intense protests followed the killing of Mahsa Amini 22, while in the custody of the morality police after being arrested for "improper hijab".[citation needed]

As of April 2023, protests have fizzled out due to a violent crackdown, in the form of mass arrests and several executions, but obedience to mandatory hijab by younger women has also dropped markedly, despite harsh penalties. In the capital city of Tehran, it can still be observed in the Bazaar (home of tradition), but not "in places popular with younger women"—parks, cafes, restaurants and malls.[78]

Farnaz Fassihi of the New York Times quotes a 23 year old a graduate student in Sanandaj, in western Iran, "I have not worn a scarf for months ... Whether the government likes to admit it or not, the era of the forced hijab is over."[78]

Even many religious women who wear a hijab by choice have joined the campaign to repeal the law. A petition with thousands of names and photographs of women is circulating on Instagram and Twitter with the message, “I wear the hijab, but I am against the compulsory hijab.”[78]

However, as of 1 April 2023, there has been "unyielding rhetoric" from the Iranian Interior Ministry and head of the judiciary, promising "no retreat or tolerance" on enforcement of mandatory hijab.[79] and two weeks prior Iranian authorities proposed new measures to enforce hijab, replacing Guidance Patrols with surveillance cameras. These

will be used to monitor public spaces for women not wearing the hijab, and offenders will be punished subsequently with measures that include cutting off their mobile phone and Internet connections. Police and judicial authorities will be tasked with collecting evidence and identifying violators.[80]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Explained: Why the hijab is crucial to Iran's Islamic rulers". euronews. 2023-07-18. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  2. ^ Khan, Hajrah (2022-10-10). "What is the Hijab and Why do Women Wear It?". The Abington Sun. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  3. ^ "Safavid dynasty | History, Culture, Religion, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2023-10-10. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  4. ^ "historical study of the trend of changing the dress and hijab of women in Iranian society during the transition from the Pahlavi period to the Islamic Republic". Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry. 12 (8).
  5. ^ Amirmijani, Khadejeh; Sadegh, Ali Rahimi (2021-11-11). "A historical study of the trend of changing the dress and hijab of women in Iranian society during the transition from the Pahlavi period to the Islamic Republic". Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry. 12 (8): 7272–7281. ISSN 1309-6591.
  6. ^ a b Heath, Jennifer (2008). The Veil: Women Writers on Its History, Lore, and Politics, Berkeley; Los Angeles: the University of California Press, p. 66, 252–253, 256, 260, ISBN 9780520255180
  7. ^ a b Keddie, Nikki R. (2005). "2. The past and present of women in the Muslim world" in Moghissi, Haideh: Women and Islam: Images and realities, Vol. 1, p. 53-79, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis, ISBN 9780415324199
  8. ^ Mitchell, Colin P. (2011). New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society, Abingdon, Oxon; New York: Taylor & Francis, p. 98-99, 104, ISBN 9780415774628
  9. ^ a b Floor, Willem M. (2003). Agriculture in Qajar Iran, Washington, DC: Mage Publishers, p. 113, 268, ISBN 9780934211789
  10. ^ a b Chehabi, Houchang Esfandiar (2003): "11. The Banning of the Veil and Its Consequences" in Cronin, Stephanie: The Making of Modern Iran: State and Society under Riza Shah, 1921–1941, p. 203-221, London; New York: Routledge; Taylor & Francis, ISBN 9780415302845
  11. ^ Bullock, Katherine (2002). Rethinking Muslim Women and the Veil: Challenging Historical & Modern Stereotypes, Herndon, Virginia; London: International Institute of Islamic Thought, p. 90-91, ISBN 9781565642874
  12. ^ "Middle East: History of Islamic Dress | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  13. ^ a b Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  14. ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  15. ^ mo@Iran (2018-05-24). "A look at Qajar era clothing". The Iran Project. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  16. ^ Rezaei, Zeynab. "Clothing of people in Qajar era". Middle Eastern Handicrafts. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  17. ^ a b Bāmdād Badr-al-Mulūk and Frank Ronald Charles Bagley. From Darkness into Light Women's Emancipation in Iran. Mazda Publ., 2013.
  18. ^ Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers, Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, p. 19, 34–37, ISBN 9780815602668
  19. ^ Petridis, Alexis (16 March 2015). "Rocking the casbah: the gig of a lifetime that put Iranian women back on stage". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 22 January 2016. Retrieved 23 December 2017.
  20. ^ Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions, 1982, p. 140
  21. ^ Beck, Lois; Nashat, Guity (2004). Women in Iran from 1800 to the Islamic Republic. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07189-8. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  22. ^ Zargarian, Tannaz (11 August 2020). Iranian Women's Quest for Self-Liberation through the Internet and Social Media: An Emancipatory Pedagogy (Thesis). Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  23. ^ Sanasarian E. The Women's Rights Movement in Iran : Mutiny Appeasement and Repression from 1900 to Khomeini. New York N.Y: Praeger; 1982.
  24. ^ Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and. Reveiling. By Hamideh Sedghi. New York: Cambridge University. Press. 2007. p. 85
  25. ^ a b c Fazle Chowdhury: Promises of Betrayals: The History That Shaped the Iranian Shia Clerics Archived 6 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ a b c d e f g h i Beck, Lois; Nashat, Guity (2004). Women in Iran from 1800 to the Islamic Republic. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-02937-0. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2023. ISBN 978-0-252-07189-8
  27. ^ Afary, Janet (9 April 2009). Sexual Politics in Modern Iran. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-39435-3. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  28. ^ "How did Reza Pahlavi's dictatorship affect Iranian women?". navideshahed.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
  29. ^ a b c Milani, Farzaneh (1992). Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers, Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, p. 19, 34–37, ISBN 9780815602668
  30. ^ a b Hoodfar, Homa (fall 1993). The Veil in Their Minds and On Our Heads: The Persistence of Colonial Images of Muslim Women, Resources for feminist research (RFR) / Documentation sur la recherche féministe (DRF), Vol. 22, n. 3/4, pp. 5–18, Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto (OISE), ISSN 0707-8412
  31. ^ a b Katouzian, Homa (2006). State and Society in Iran: The Eclipse of the Qajars and the Emergence of the Pahlavis, 2nd ed, Library of modern Middle East studies, Vol. 28, London; New York: I.B. Tauris, pp. 33–34, 335–336, ISBN 9781845112721
  32. ^ Shahidian, Hammed. "The Iranian Left and the ‘Woman Question’ in the Revolution of 1978–79." International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 26, no. 2, Cambridge University Press, 1994, pp. 223–47, http://www.jstor.org/stable/164734 Archived 4 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
  33. ^ a b Hamideh Sedghi, “FEMINIST MOVEMENTS iii. IN THE PAHLAVI PERIOD,” Archived 28 January 2023 at the Wayback Machine Encyclopædia Iranica, IX/5, pp. 492–498, Accessed 30 December 2012.
  34. ^ "How did Reza Pahlavi's dictatorship affect Iranian women?". Khamenei.ir. 7 January 2018. Archived from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 2018-07-13.
  35. ^ a b c Vakil, Sanam (2011). Women and politics in the Islamic republic of Iran: Action and reaction. New York: Continnuum-3PL. ISBN 978-1441197344. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  36. ^ a b c El Guindi, Fadwa (1999). Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance, Oxford; New York: Berg Publishers; Bloomsbury Academic, p. 3, 13–16, 130, 174–176, ISBN 9781859739242
  37. ^ Ramezani, Reza (2008). Hijab dar Iran, dar doure-ye Pahlavi-ye dovvom [Hijab in Iran, the second Pahlavi era] (Persian), Faslnamah-e Takhassusi-ye Banuvan-e Shi’ah [Quarterly Journal of Shiite Women], Qom: Muassasah-e Shi’ah Shinasi, ISSN 1735-4730
  38. ^ a b c d e Foran, John (2003). Theorizing revolutions. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-77921-5. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  39. ^ Paidar, Parvin (1995). Women and the political process in twentieth-century Iran. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 213–215. ISBN 0-521-47340-3. OCLC 30400577. Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  40. ^ a b c d "Why Iranian authorities force women to wear a veil". DW. 21 December 2020. Archived from the original on 8 November 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
  41. ^ Algar, Hamid (2001). Roots of the Islamic Revolution in Iran: Four Lectures, Oneonta, New York: Islamic Publications International (IPI), p. 84, ISBN 9781889999265
  42. ^ Justice for Iran (March 2014). Thirty-five Years of Forced Hijab: The Widespread and Systematic Violation of Women's Rights in Iran (PDF) (Report). www.Justiceforiran.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 September 2022. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
  43. ^ a b "Iran signals determination to enforce hijab rules". BBC News. 2023-04-01. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  44. ^ "Why is Iran bringing back its 'morality police'? – DW – 07/17/2023". dw.com. Retrieved 2023-11-06.
  45. ^ a b "irans-provincial-authorities-determined-to-enforce-hijab-rules".
  46. ^ "عضو مجلس ایران خواستار محرومیت "بی‌حجاب‌ها" از خدمات اجتماعی شد". العربیه فارسی. 4 February 2023.
  47. ^ "۱۵ طرح در طول چهار ماه با هدف کنترل و برخورد با اعتراض ها". دیدبان ایران. 16 August 2023.
  48. ^ Luyken, Jörg (2023-08-07). "German-made cameras used to catch Iranian women defying hijab ban". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  49. ^ "Germany's Bosch aided Iran's efforts targeting anti-hijab women and protesters: Report". WION. 8 August 2023. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  50. ^ "جزئیاتی جدید از لایحه " عفاف و حجاب"؛ زنان، مرتبطین با رسانه‌‌ها و کسبه در معرض اتهام". 26 July 2023. Archived from the original on 26 July 2023. Retrieved 26 July 2023.
  51. ^ "جبار برای پوشش متحدالشکل مقنعه و مانتو در فست‌‌فودهای مشهد". اعتمادآنلاین. 16 August 2023.
  52. ^ "نماینده اصفهان: برای مقابله با بی‌حجابی، جریمه مستقیما از حساب افراد بی‌حجاب کسر می‌شود". ایران اینترنشنال (in Persian). 2023-08-02. Retrieved 2023-08-02.
  53. ^ "ندادن خدمات پزشکی به افراد بی‌حجاب رسما اعلام جنگ علیه قانون است؛ برای نظام حکمرانی هم بسیار خطرناک است". Archived from the original on 1 August 2023. Retrieved 1 August 2023.
  54. ^ "حجاب اجباری در ایران؛ تقلاهای حکومت و ادامه مقاومت زنان – DW – ۱۴۰۲/۵/۱۶". dw.com.
  55. ^ "نماینده رفسنجان: بی‌حجابان زیر ۱۸ سال از تحصیل، پاسپورت و اینترنت محروم می‌شوند". ایران اینترنشنال. 16 August 2023.
  56. ^ "Iran's politicians to debate hijab laws in secret". BBC. 2023-08-13. Retrieved 2023-08-23.
  57. ^ رویداد۲۴, پايگاه خبری تحلیلی (2023-08-01). "جریمه‌‌های لایحه حجاب و عفاف چقدر برای دولت درآمد دارد؟ +جدول | رویداد24". fa (in Persian). Retrieved 2023-08-08.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  58. ^ "مجازات کشف‌حجاب‌کننده غیرایرانی در قانون حجاب‌ و عفاف چیست؟". اعتمادآنلاین (in Persian). 2023-09-24. Retrieved 2023-09-24.
  59. ^ a b "The 'Girls of Revolution Street' Protest Iran's Compulsory Hijab Laws · Global Voices". Global Voices. 30 January 2018. Archived from the original on 30 January 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  60. ^ a b Kasana, Mehreen. "Why This One Video of a Woman Protesting in Iran Is Going Viral". Bustle. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  61. ^ "On Wednesday we wear white: Women in Iran challenge compulsory hijab". Newsweek. 14 June 2017. Archived from the original on 9 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  62. ^ "The high stakes of hijab protests in Iran". Axios. 17 February 2018. Archived from the original on 17 December 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  63. ^ a b c d Gerretsen, Isabelle (1 February 2018). "Iran: 29 women arrested over anti-hijab protests inspired by 'girl of Enghelab Street'". International Business Times UK. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  64. ^ "Vida Movahed, the woman who sparked anti-hijab protests in Iran | The Arab Weekly". The Arab Weekly. Archived from the original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  65. ^ Hatam, Nassim (14 June 2017). "Why Iranian women are wearing white on Wednesdays". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  66. ^ "Nasrin Sotoudeh نسرین ستوده". www.facebook.com. Archived from the original on 25 July 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  67. ^ "Iran lawyer raises concern over missing hijab protester". The Daily Star Newspaper – Lebanon. 22 January 2018. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  68. ^ "Iranian Police Arrest 29 Women Protesting Against Veiling Law". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 31 March 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  69. ^ a b "Iran: Dozens of women ill-treated and at risk of long jail terms for peacefully protesting compulsory veiling". www.amnesty.org. 26 February 2018. Archived from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  70. ^ "Iran Human Rights Documentation Center – Islamic Penal Code of the Islamic Republic of Iran – Book Five". www.iranhrdc.org. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  71. ^ "Woman Who Removed Headscarf in Public Sentenced to Prison as Supreme Leader Tries to Diminish Hijab Protests – Center for Human Rights in Iran". www.iranhumanrights.org. 10 March 2018. Archived from the original on 10 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  72. ^ "Iran Chides Police for Using Force Against Female Veil Protester". Bloomberg.com. 25 February 2018. Archived from the original on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  73. ^ Esfandiari, Golnaz. "Feminist Trio Takes Defiant Song To Tehran's Subway, Video Goes Viral". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  74. ^ "Khamenei Claims Iran's 'Enemies' Behind Anti-Hijab Protests". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  75. ^ Cunningham, Erin (8 March 2018). "Iran's supreme leader in tweetstorm: Western countries lead women to 'deviant lifestyle'". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  76. ^ "Khamenei.ir (@khamenei_ir) | Twitter". twitter.com. Archived from the original on 18 July 2018. Retrieved 11 March 2018.
  77. ^ Krauss, Joseph (21 September 2022). "EXPLAINER: What kept Iran protests going after first spark?". AP NEWS. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 17 October 2022.
  78. ^ a b c Fassihi, Farnaz (25 February 2023). "Their Hair Long and Flowing or in Ponytails, Women in Iran Flaunt Their Locks". The New York Times. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
  79. ^ Usher, Sebastian (1 April 2023). "Iran signals determination to enforce hijab rules". BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 8 April 2023.
  80. ^ "Iranian Government Proposes New Measures To Enforce Hijab Law, Including Surveillance". RFE/RL. 15 March 2023. Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved 7 April 2023.

Sources[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hijab_in_Iran&oldid=1234936451#Modern_Law"